Raymond T. Smith

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SECTION I

 

CHAPTER I

 

INTRODUCTION

 

B

RITISH GUIANA lies on the north-eastern shoulder of South America, but its lines of communication run north and east, over the sea to the West Indian islands, to Britain and to the United States of America.  Approximately 94 per cent of its ethnically diverse population lives on a narrow coastal strip separated from its continental neighbours by tracts of tropical forest and wide rivers.  Whatever new links may be forged with Brazil, Venezuela, Dutch and French Guiana now that air transport is rapidly becoming a practical proposition, it is certain that at the present time British Guiana’s main interests are bound up with those of the British West Indian islands, with which it shares a common language and culture.  Despite its vast hinterland, and the possibility of the discovery of valuable mineral deposits and so on, it is at present ‘under-developed’ and the majority of its 436,431 inhabitants share the low standards of living and poverty which are so characteristic of the circum-Caribbean territories.  But these factors are complicated by the existence of an intricate system of social distinctions based upon race and status.  The process of welding six ‘nations’, East Indian, Negro, Portuguese, Amerindian, Chinese and European, into a unit where ethnic identity is not the basis of distribution of social rewards is not an easy one, and although British Guiana has gone a long way towards developing a sense of common purpose in its diverse population, it would be both unrealistic and inaccurate to ignore the marked cleavages which exist at the present time; cleavages which are based both upon ethnic and cultural foundations, and are inherent in the present structure and functioning of Guianese society.

The West Indian area has been relatively neglected by social anthropologists but it is becoming increasingly clear that it constitutes an extremely fertile field for the investigation of problems of socia1 organization which lie close to some of the most crucial issues of the subject.  This is nowhere more true than in the case of the study of the family, and whereas the West Indian lower-class family system has often been regarded as a pathological phenomenon resulting from the relative disorganization of West Indian society, it is our contention that this family system provides us with a special and extremely illuminating case of the operation of certain principles which have a general significance for social theory.

    This book deals primarily with certain aspects of the social structure of three village communities in the coastal area of British Guiana, but in attempting to arrive at an adequate understanding of these relatively small sections of the population we are obliged to consider features of the total society of British Guiana, so interdependent and functionally related are the local communities and the total society of which they are a part.  This is a fact which is often overlooked by social anthropologists when they turn their attention from small-scale, pre-literate, and relatively homogeneous societies to those more nearly resembling our own, or when they begin to carry out studies in Europe or North America using the techniques of anthropological field-study.  Malinowski’s insistence upon regarding every element of culture as relevant to the anthropologist’s view of society, coupled with Radcliffe-Brown’s postulate that a society must be regarded as an integrated whole, the function of each part being to contribute to the integration of the whole, have often been interpreted to mean that the field-worker must be able to encompass every aspect of a whole society by means of first-hand observation.  So long as anthropologists confined their attention to small-scale homogeneous societies where the variations in the pattern of social life were small over the whole population, this was more or less feasible, though one often wonders just how much selectivity and generalization covering a range of social variation is made in even the best documented study.  In larger and more extensively structured societies it is clearly impossible to cover every aspect of social life in the total society, and an almost natural tendency is to try to isolate a sub-unit, usually a geographical unit, of a large society, and attempt to study it as though it were itself a total social system.  A convincing case can be made out for the selection of such a sub-unit in terms of working convenience when one is doing an intimate first-hand study of a people’s way of life, but when it comes to the analysis stage of the work it may be quite unjustifiable to treat such a sub-unit as if it constituted a total system in itself.  Some writers have even spoken of a local community, or geographically defined sub-unit, as being the microcosm representing the macroscopic whole of which it is a part (Warner 1952: 33).  This position has been rightly criticized by Braithwaite (1953: 39), and our own experience has been that it is more realistic to forego the attempt to find a consistency between all the social institutions within the village as though it were itself a closed system with a well-defined boundary.  We are now convinced that certain features of the social structure are only explicable if seen as part of a wider social system which cannot be regarded as being merely ‘external’ to the village.  Consequently we shall have to deal with features of Guianese society in its widest sense, and particularly with the system of social stratification in the colony as a whole.  Much social action at the local community level contributes to the integration of structures which cross-cut that community, and the boundaries of which are not coincident with it.

    The question then arises as to what we shall consider to be the boundaries of our ‘wider’ or ‘total’ system, and for the purpose of the problems we shall explore in this book we shall refer to the ‘total Guianese society’.  That is, we shall treat the society of the colony of British Guiana as if it were a total social system for the purposes of our analysis, though it is clear that if one were investigating certain other problems, particularly of an economic or political nature, then British Guiana would have to be treated as a sub-system of a wider system, or systems, such as the British Commonwealth or the West Indies.  Social systems are of such a nature that they are rarely completely self-contained, but whereas we may be justified in treating the whole of British Guiana as an autonomous unit for the purpose of the present analysis, we are not justified in treating the village in a similar fashion because there are direct interdependencies between those features of social structure within the village which form the subject of our inquiry, and certain social structures within the unit we call ‘Guianese society’.

    All writers dealing with the Negro family in the New World have remarked upon the important place held by women in the family system, and have been impressed by the apparent weakness of the conjugal tie on the one hand, and the strength of kinship ties and particularly the mother-child bond on the other.  Such observations apply particularly to the lower-class Negro family, and whilst it is clear that many variations have been relatively neglected there is ample evidence to show that these generalizations are broadly true.  When it comes to the question of why this should be so there is disagreement between scholars.  Our task is a two-fold one.  First to report accurately upon the situation as it exists in the population we have chosen to study and towards this end it is felt that the distribution figures which we present are an indispensable part of the report, and secondly to interpret the facts of field observation in the light of general sociological theory.

    For the sake of brevity the title of this book has had to forego strict accuracy.  To be able to generalize to the whole of the rural Negro group we should either have to study every Negro family in the rural areas, or take an adequate random sample of them.  Neither procedure is practicable for a single field-worker.  In fact field-work was carried out in three villages which have been given the fictitious (but typically Guianese) names of August Town, Perseverance and Better Hope.  Field-tours were for the following periods of time.

 

August Town—West Coast Berbice—July 1951 to June 1952 inclusive

Perseverance—Essequibo—October 1952 to December 1952 inclusive.

Better Hope—West Coast Demerara—January 1952 to April 1953 inclusive.

 

The three villages were chosen on the basis of their general suitability as field-centres; the fact that their racial composition was predominantly Negro; that their populations were of such a size as to permit a thorough study of family structure in terms of fieldwork methods and resources; that they appeared to have different degrees of economic prosperity; and that they are varying distances from the urban centre of Georgetown.  They were not chosen according to any rigorous sampling technique and therefore, strictly speaking, the conclusions drawn from the study cannot be generalized to other villages, though on the other hand, there is nothing to suggest that these three villages differ significantly from other Negro villages in the coastal area.

    August Town, Perseverance, and Better Hope lie in the three counties of Berbice, Essequibo and Demerara respectively, and they are situated on the densely populated coastal strip which carries some 94 per cent of the total population of the country.  The villages and plantations lie along the main, and almost the only, road in the colony like beads on a string and the cultivated area stretches inland for distances varying from about two to fifteen miles.  The following summary gives a brief indication of the general characteristics of our three villages, the information being based on material collected in the field.  Reference to the maps on page 24 and page 27 will give an idea of their general layout.

 

 

 

POPULATION

APPROX. AREA IN ACRES

APPROX. DISTANCE FROM GEORGETOWN IN MILES

VILLAGE

Male

Female

Farmland

Residential

 

August Town

797

930

520

250

56

Perseverance

324

361

572

130

34 road miles & two ferry trips lasting approx. 7 hours in all

Better Hope

422

541

688

200

7 road miles and one short ferry trip lasting approx. 10 minutes

 

 

The field-work techniques adopted by social anthropologists are sufficiently well established to make a lengthy discourse on this topic unnecessary and the adequacy or otherwise of the data collected may be judged from the evidence presented in the chapters that follow. [1]   After a six-weeks period of familiarization with the rural areas of the coastlands, August Town was chosen as the first field-centre; a house, of the same type as the majority of houses in the village, was rented, and the field-work commenced.  A certain amount of suspicion was encountered during the first few weeks, since no Englishman had ever lived in the village before, but this was easily overcome and good relations were quickly established.  Participation in the life of the community was possible to a far greater extent than it would be in a more ‘primitive’ community, and since the local dialect is basically and recognizably English, there was no language difficulty.  Surveys of various kinds were carried out, and a good deal of quantitative data were obtained without any difficulties arising in the way of refusals to co-operate in interviews and so on.

    Field-tours in the other two villages were much shorter, but were carried out under exactly the same conditions.  During the last field-tour in Better Hope, some time was spent in collecting information on other villages in the area, and on studying factors of significance in a wider context than that of the village.

 

HISTORY 0F THE THREE VILLAGES

 

As social anthropologists we are interested in the study of social structures as they exist over a limited time-span, usually broad enough to enable us to discern regularities in cyclical processes as well as to allow us to observe and record regular customary modes of social action. [2]   The three villages with which we are concerned came into being at a known point in time, and in a known manner, and we are able to give some idea of the relative stability in the form of local organization, economic activities, and so on, and this is of theoretical importance to our study as well as serving as a descriptive background to what has been recorded during the period of field-work.

    Slavery and sugar cultivation made their appearance together in the British West Indies when, in 1616, the first plantation of sugar cane on British territory was made in Bermuda and in the same year one Negro and one Indian slave were landed from one of the Spanish islands (Masefield 1950: 22).  The history of colonization is the story of the demand for labour, and the building up of a diverse population through the importation of indentured Europeans, mostly criminals and deportees, but above all of Negro slaves from Africa.

    British Guiana was originally discovered by Columbus on his third voyage, but attempts at colonization came much later.  By 1580 a few Dutch settlers had landed on the Guiana coast, but Raleigh’s expeditions of 1594 to 1597 were still mainly treasure-seeking enterprises and serious colonization was left to later Dutch traders and settlers who moved inland up the great rivers.  Although the territories which comprise present-day British Guiana were under Dutch control for a great deal of the time between their discovery and their final acquisition by Great Britain in 1815, this did not mean that British planters and traders were entirely absent from the colony.  Apart from repeated forays against the Dutch by French and English expeditions in the latter half of the seventeenth century, English settlements were established on a permanent basis during the eighteenth century under Dutch rule.  In 1796 a military detachment from Barbados under the command of General Whyte occupied the whole of Guiana, but by the Peace of Amiens the colonies of Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice were given back to the Dutch, only to be reoccupied in 1803 by an English fleet and officially ceded to Britain by the treaties of Paris and London in 1814.

    Pinckard reports that at the end of the eighteenth century there was a large number of English traders in Georgetown as well as the English planters in other parts of the colony, but the towns of Georgetown and New Amsterdam were little more than administrative centres and the sites of the courts, for the real reason for the existence of the colony was the plantations and it was around them, and their production, that everything else revolved (Pinckard 1806).

    By the time that the abolition of slavery movement was under way the structure of West Indian society had emerged in a clearly recognizable form, and the broad outlines of that structure can still be discerned today.  Plantation cultivation dominated by a white oligarchical plantocracy, and depending on the slave trade to furnish the necessary manual labour for production, resulted in the development of a rigid pyramidal structure with the lowest stratum in a clearly-defined legal position as slaves.  Originally race and skin colour were relatively unimportant criteria of status, for all labourers regardless of whether they were African slaves or European indentured labourers occupied much the same position.  The overriding consideration was to supply labour, and sentiments of racial superiority and inferiority seem to have increased in importance as race came to be a more crucial index of differentiation, with the rapid growth in the number of enslaved Negroes and the diminution in the number of white labourers.  The formation of a mixed-blood middle-class, through the process of miscegenation, has been well documented (see Williams, E. 1942, 1944 and Henriques 1953).  By the end of the eighteenth century, this group had assumed a position of great importance, and its existence gives the whole system its main distinguishing characteristics.  The abolition of the slave trade and the eventual emancipation of the slaves established a more just relationship between the various strata without altering the fundamental structure of the hierarchical system in which they were arranged.  Even in Haiti where a successful revolution resulted in the virtual expulsion of the French, the main outlines of the colour/class hierarchy eventually reasserted themselves and the light coloured Creoles replaced the French as the apex of the pyramid (see Leyburn 1941).

    Of the social life of the slaves on the Guiana plantations we know very little.  Certainly slaves were granted some privileges, and there was scope for them to develop a limited degree of internal organization and retain some of their own customs.  An investigation carried out in Demerara in 1808 revealed that ‘it had been customary for years for the negroes of every nation in a district to choose head-men or “Kings”, under whom were several subaltern officers of the same nation.  The duties of the “kings” were to take care of the sick and purchase rice, sugar, etc., for them, to conduct the burials, and see that the corpse was properly enclosed in a cloth, and that the customary rites and dances mere duly observed’ (Rodway cited by Cameron 1934, Bk. I: 108-9).  It was also mentioned that the slaves contributed money for funeral expenses, and of course this is very similar to the prevailing West African pattern, both in the past and in the present.  However, amongst the slaves an extended system of reciprocity such as this would be tied to the local community such as the estate, and further broken down on the basis of tribal affiliation, rather than on a strictly kinship basis.  Even under the most adverse conditions, such an extended network of reciprocal relations would be necessary in order to carry out the minimum of rites in the event of death, and the present-day burial societies perform the same functions. [3]

    The ability to attend markets and to sell produce, as well as such articles as fish, crabs, pigs, poultry, fishing nets, baskets, pottery and prepared foods such as black pudding, souse, [4] and cassava bread, must have been important in enabling some slaves to acquire enough money to purchase manumission, and this contributed to the growth of a free group of Negro and Coloured persons, who often owned slaves of their own.

    Slave rebellions were as common in Guiana as elsewhere in the West Indies, and at various times groups of rebels and runaway slaves managed to establish settlements where they led an independent, if somewhat precarious existence.  Pinckard reports that there were about eight runaway settlements in Demerara towards the end of the eighteenth century and they caused a good deal of trouble by their raids on the plantations.  He describes the settlements as follows:

Having fixed upon the spot most convenient for their purpose, a circular piece of ground was cleared of its wood, and, in the centre of this, they built huts, and formed the encampment, planting round about the buildings, oranges, bananas, plantains, yams, eddoes, and other kinds of provisions; thus, in addition to the trees of the forest, procuring themselves further concealment by the plantations which gave them food.  The eddoes were found in great plenty, and had seemed to constitute their principal diet.  Round the exterior of the circular spot was cut a deep and wide ditch, which, being filled with water, and stuck, at the sides and bottom, with sharp pointed stakes, served as a formidable barrier of defence.  The path across this ditch was placed two or three feet below the surface, and wholly concealed from the eve by the water being always thick and muddy (Pinckard 1806, Vol II: 246-7).

Shortly after Pinckard arrived in the colony all the bands except one were wiped out by a force of slaves and Amerindians, and by 1800 all the settlements had been destroyed.  The members of the punitive expeditions got 300 guilders for every right hand they brought in, and from one foray they brought in seventy-six hands and a number of prisoners, all of whom were tortured and then killed.  This put paid to the Bush Negro settlements, and no permanent groups survived as they did in Surinam (see Herskovits, M.J. & S.F. 1934) and Jamaica (see Henriques 1953: 15 and Edwards 1796).

    The estates at this time were concentrating on the production of cotton and coffee rather than sugar, and out of 116 estates along the coast from Georgetown to the Abary, only Plantation Kitty was growing sugar, all the rest being planted in cotton (Pinckard 1806, Vol. III: 403). [5]   Berbice produced coffee, and in August Town I was told by the older inhabitants that they had heard from their parents and grandparents that the estates on the West Coast did not grow sugar in ‘slavery days’ but cultivated cotton and coffee.  However the plantation system was the same, and whether it was sugar, cotton or coffee that was grown at any particular time depended to a great extent upon the availability of markets, and price levels in Europe.

    Between the beginning of the nineteenth century and the final emancipation of the slaves in 1838, there must have been a considerable influx of planters with their slaves from the over-crowded islands of the Caribbean, and Farley has referred to British Guiana at this time as an expanding economic frontier region (Farley 1954).  However, our main concern is with the establishment and development of the free Negro villages after 1838, and prior to that date there were only three tiny hamlets, probably inhabited by freed persons, in the whole colony, and the enormous development of the new village communities after 1838 was undertaken by ex-slaves who had all spent some time on the Guianese plantations.  It is worth mentioning that even after emancipation the immigration of Africans continued, and between 1841 and 1865, 13,264 Africans entered British Guiana.  No doubt many of them came from other West Indian islands, but some came from North America, and some came direct from Africa (see Cruikshank 1919).  In 1891 the number of African-born Negroes in the colony was 3,443 whilst by 1911 the number had fallen to 706.

    The slaves had been participating in a money economy for a considerable time, particularly through their markets in the towns, and during their apprenticeship period from 1834 to 1838 they were able to devote a part of their time to working for wages, the planters being forced to pay them for any work they did in excess of a statutory seven and a half hours per day.  After 1838 the now emancipated workers were free to choose their employers, and free to demand higher wages, and they thus began to accumulate a certain amount of capital.  The planters were concerned lest the Negroes decided not to work at all, and it is reported that they even cut down many fruit trees to ensure that there was not a ready food supply to be had for the picking (see Rodway 1891-4, Vol. III: 106).  For the same reason they were loath to lease lands on which the Negroes could build their own houses and plant gardens, and they attempted to keep them in the estate-owned quarters from which they could be evicted if they refused to work.  Despite these attempts, the prevailing conditions resulted in many planters having to cease operations, and those who did not actually close down found it expedient to sell part of their surplus lands in order to offset their losses (see Barton Premium 1805: 60, 69, 70-71, 133).  The Negroes banded themselves together in groups and pooling their resources, purchased whole estates or sections of estates.  The present-day villages of Victoria and Buxton on the East Coast of Demerara were the first two estates to be purchased, and by 1842 they were quite large villages (Cameron 1934, Bk. II: 8).  A Commission of Investigation appointed to determine the amount of land held by the freedmen, reported that out of a rural population of 79,000, some 15,906 were already settled in villages, and 3,322 wooden cottages had been erected.  Cameron asserts that the farmlands of some of the new villages were worked communally with a paid manager and a clerk to keep accounts, and that in Buxton the impracticability of this system led to the villagers requesting government to partition their lands (Cameron 1934, Bk. II: 12).  The question of the ‘communal’ working of farmlands seems to be an open one, and though the main works of the village, including drainage and irrigation were certainly run in this manner, it is probable that each family planted its own gardens, and that the difficulties arose over the individual allotments of shares of land.  Partitioning Ordinances were certainly passed in 1851 and 1852 which provided for the division of lands between shareholders in those villages requesting government assistance in this matter.

    An interesting comment is made by Rodway on a subject that we shall find to be of great interest later on (Rodway 1891-4, Vol. III: 103).  A certain number of the freed Negroes had gone into the retail trades, for obviously there had to be agencies of distribution for essential commodities such as imported foodstuffs, cloth and hardware now that this function was no longer carried out by the management of the estates.  Rodway suggests that the later ousting of the Negroes from this activity was due to the fact that the town merchants refused to sell to Negroes in an attempt to drive them back into the fields, but favoured the new Portuguese immigrants who had proved less satisfactory as field hands.  Even at a common-sense level this gives a new slant to the usually propounded theory that the Portuguese were just naturally better business men and so monopolized the retail trades.

    The whole picture of the establishment of the free Negro villages is an exceedingly complex one and its detailed documentation in the wider context of the social, economic and political movements of the time remains as a task for the historian.  It seems certain that the rapid development of freehold villages was partly due to the economic factors associated with the trade position of the West Indies which made land available, and which probably contributed in large measure to the growth of the emancipation movement itself (see Williams, E. 1942).  Another major factor was the ecological necessity for individuals to associate themselves into reasonably large units in order to cope with the problems of drainage and irrigation.  With this brief background we are now in a position to examine more closely the development of the three villages with which we are primarily concerned.

August Town

In the pre-1838 era a planter named Mr. James Blair owned four cotton estates in the vicinity of what is now August Town.  They were known as Nos. 16, 17, 18 and 19, and after emancipation, groups of slaves from No. 19 on the one hand and Nos. 17 and 18 on the other, bought two sections of August Town lands.  This is a traditional account, and the same tradition also asserts that all of Mr. Blair’s slaves were related even then, and this accounts for the close relationship between the people of August Town and certain other Negro villages further down the coast, for their ancestors came from Blair’s estate too.  The Congregational Church which stood at Rodborough, the present site of the Congregational Manse, was dismantled and the materials were divided into three sections which were used to build three new churches in three villages of which August Town was one.  This helps to bolster the tradition of a common origin for the three villages and for the Negro communities of the lower part of the coast of Western Berbice.  Whether the details of this story are historically accurate or not is of little concern to us, for its main purpose seems to be to validate the relationships which exist between the communities today.  Certainly the main outlines seem likely to be correct for Pinckard mentions having visited Mr. Blair’s estate at the end of the eighteenth century (Pinckard 1806, Vol. II: 351, 358-67).

    The main event in the historical tradition is the founding of the village itself shortly after emancipation.  The first section of August Town known as St. Paul’s section was purchased by a group of forty-nine persons.  A copy of the Transport (conveyance) passed at that time shows that they were represented by one man who appeared before His Honour Samuel Firebrace, one of the Judges of the Supreme Court of Civil Justice of British Guiana, on the 12th day of October, 1840 (Sch, B, 1916/No. 768–Deeds Registry–New Amsterdam, British Guiana).  In 1841 a magistrate made a tour of the rural areas, and in his report to the Governor he remarked upon an estate called No. 21 (the numerical designation of St. Paul’s section) and on the neat cottages built by the ‘labourers’.  He thought it seemed to be quite a village already.

The cultivation of provisions is being commenced at the back of the estate.  This property is owned by forty-nine people and cost 2,000 dollars.  The majority of these people I was informed by one of their body, Jacob Wilson, work upon a sugar estate called number 17, and come home only at night (1841 C.O. III/82–Governor Light to Russell, 26 Jan. 1841–Encl.).

The second section of the village to be purchased was named Troy, and this was bought in 1841 by a group of ex-slaves from Nos. 17 and 18 sections of Blair’s estate.  Although these two units, Troy and St. Paul’s were, and are, contiguous, they formed two separate units for many years.  A bitter feud is supposed to have developed between the two sections over the disputed position of the boundary lines between them at the very back of the cultivation area.  The drainage trenches separating the two sections take a sharp turn into St. Paul’s land at one point, before turning back into the previous direction of division, and if they are still taken as the dividing line beyond this point it means that St. Paul’s loses a small area of land.  The St. Paul’s people contended that the boundary should be a continuation of the straight compass line, and they reputedly took the matter to court and got a decision in their favour.  However, this resulted in a prolonged series of fights, reciprocal burning of crops, impounding of animals, and working of destructive magic.  Most important of all, a ban on intermarriage between the two sections was maintained until somewhere around the 1870’s when the marriage of a Troy woman to a St. Paul’s man marked the beginning of frequent intermarriage.  It is interesting that this traditional account places the first intermarriage at a point corresponding to the farthest extension of known kinship reckoning, and this division of the village into two sections with a tradition of mutual hostility is particularly interesting since something of the kind is found in most Negro villages throughout the country. [6]

    When the two sections were purchased and settled each had its own internal organization and its own elected headmen.  The fact that most of British Guiana’s coastlands lie below the level of the sea at high tide means that an elaborate system of drainage and irrigation works has to be maintained if the land is not to be perpetually under water, and if farming is to be at all possible (see below).  This means that the system of social organization has to be of such a nature that the tasks involved can be properly executed.  It was not, and is not, possible for each proprietor to drain his or her own pieces of land individually, and the history of village political organization is dominated by the recurrent theme of problems of drainage and irrigation.  We do not know a great deal about the very early working of the system in August Town, except that the headmen were elected to supervise the proper execution of the necessary works.  Some villages seem to have run into difficulties quite early, for one of the demands of the central government was that every village and estate should be responsible for that section of the public road running through it, and as early as 1845 we find Queen’s Town, Essequibo, petitioning government to enact an ordinance making it compulsory for every villager to contribute to the upkeep of the road and its bridges.  Plaisance, Demerara followed in 1849, and monetary contributions in lieu of labour contributions were introduced.  The central government gradually came to exercise a greater degree of supervision over the internal organization of the villages, and the history of the various ordinances affecting the villages has been well documented by Cameron (1934, I am much indebted to this writer for his account of the history of the Guianese villages), and in less detail by Hinden (1950: 53–70).  It appears that there was always a certain amount of difficulty involved in enforcing the obligations of villagers to contribute to the maintenance of the village works and the early appeals to government were primarily for a system of effective legal sanctions to bolster the authority of the village headmen or overseers.  Most of the early legislation was concerned with providing these sanctions, but one also hears stories today of the way in which villages sometimes worked out their own control system.  Thus in August Town it is said that anyone defaulting on their obligations to work was arraigned before a ‘court’ of the whole body of the proprietors, and if the negligence of the offender was established then he could be beaten by the headmen.  For August Town we are fortunate enough to possess a copy of an agreement which was signed by all the shareholders as early as 1865.  This document is in the possession of one of the villagers, and although it was originally dated 1865, it was recopied at later dates in exactly the same form, and it is quite possible that this particular document is a copy of an even earlier one.  Judging by the style and punctuation it appears to have been drawn up by the villagers themselves, perhaps with the help of a minister or local official, and it sets out very clearly the rights, and obligations of every shareholder.  Due recognition is given to the values prohibiting ‘African’ dancing and Obeah, and these must have been fairly common at the time to merit mention in a document such as this. [7]   It is abundantly clear that a democratic form of local self-government had been established as a natural response to the situation confronting the settlement.  That this form of local control eventually became less efficient was not due to the natural inabilities or political ineptness of the villagers, but rather to the change in the pattern of activities of the shareholders, and the same factors are responsible for the ‘inefficient’ running of the village today under a local government system with a large measure of outside control.  The following is an exact copy of the document, apart from the fact that the place-names have been changed.  Where a cross appears in the middle of the signature, this indicates that the person was completely illiterate.

Rules for the administration of St. Paul section,

August Town

 

Be it known to all whom these presents shall come we the undersigned proprietors of plantation No. 21 called Saint Paul’s on this tenth day of July 1865 hereby enter into mutual agreement in the presence of the undersigned witnesses.

 

1st.                We do hereby agree that whenever there is Estate work required to be done each and every shareholder shall at once turn out and do it, or send a fit and proper person to do the same or failing to do he or she shall pay a fine of 32 cents per day which shall be recoverable by a Magistrate.  All the public outlet and dams to be refit in good order and attended to, the Estate to well drained and put in good condition.

3rd.               A Committee to be chosen yearly from the majority of shareholders who shall vote for the election of such committee which shall consist of five men who shall advise the Headmen as to what is necessary to be done for the good of the Estate for the year ending 31st July 1866 if their successors inherited shall neglect their duty a fine of sixty four cents shall be imposed, each and every shareholder shall with his family have equal rights to and from the waterside a back along the public roads or dams.  Any other person or persons trespassing shall be dealt with according to law.

4th.               Any person keeping a shop not interested in the village to pay a fine or sum of one dollar per month for the transporting of his or her goods through the coker trench.  Firewood to be bought from the shareholders.

5th.               Should any person not interested in the village graze Horses Asses pay a sum of three Dollars per Annum for each and every head.

6th.               We do hereby agree to have a burial ground or else the dead to be carried to a church or chapel such Burial ground to be well drained and kept in good condition No provision to be planted on the aforesaid ground.

7th.               We also agree that there shall be from the surveyors pall a ten feet trench to prevent all stock from grazing aback.

8th.               No strange person shall be allowed to cut cordwood unless being provided with a Licence from the committee.

9th.               And be it known to all shareholders that no ungodly dance shall be held in the village Mingy Mamma Mingy drumming, persons found in such act to be carried before Magistrate of the district.

10th.            Should any person be found practicing Obeah or receiving money under false presence to be dealt with according to law.

11th.            There must be a meeting held quarterly for the benefit of the public work of the Estate Roads Bridge Coker etc.  Carpenters to be elected by the Members of the Committee and exempted from diging trenches etc.  there must be fourteen days notice given to every shareholder.

12th.            We Nominate and appoint Jacob Rowley and Sancho Cameron to be our Headmen in the purpose of superintending the general business of the Estate and in case of failure or neglect in the said business a fine to be imposed of sixty four cents.  This done signed by the shareholders in the presence of the sub scribed witnesses.

Witnesses

Robert Bowling

George Houston

 

I hereby agree to the terms of this agreement

[Names of the proprietors of the village]

 

Jacob Rowley

Sancho Cameron X

Watson X Joseph

Stewart Thompson

Bass X Schrewder

Collingford X Sam

Hector X Wilson

Corydon X James

Brian X McFarley

Job X Stupid

King Gillis

James Watts

William Liverpool

Pith X Dover

Frank X Nicolson

Phebe X Archibald

Penny X Romeo

[Indistinct] Alexander Cain

[Indistinct] Bowling

Pompey Joseph

Felix X Wilson

Dianah X McDonald

Quamey X Johnson

William Author

John Whinfield

Harry Benjamin

Lucy X Acman

Rory X Maria

Samuel X McFarley

Eve X Rigby

Sandy Moria

Frances X House

Sabina Young

Amba X Blair

King X Thompson

Pondorah X Acman

Frank X Joseph Rigby

Sarah X Edwards

Hero X McDonald

Joan X McFarley

Phillis X Acman

Edward Gillis

Matair X [Indistinct!

[Unreadable]

Blenhem X [Indistinct]

George Cook

Febuary Watts


 

After emancipation the new villagers needed to earn money with which to provide themselves with at least those essentials which had been provided for them by their masters when they were slaves.  Clothing, cooking utensils, and certain items of food such as salt-fish, salt-beef, and pickled meat, now had to be bought for cash and since there was a limited market for farm produce grown on small holdings cash had to be obtained by selling one’s labour to the planters.  The security of having one’s own house, and at least the produce of one’s own garden, gave the ex-slaves a favourable position from which to bargain with the planters, and the strikes of 1842 show that there was a lively appreciation of the new situation.  This was short-lived and when the planters prevailed upon the home government to allow the wholesale importation of indentured labourers, first from Maderia and China, and then more significant! from India, the Negro was effectively robbed of his hitherto disconcerting bargaining power (Barton Premium 1850).  He continued to work on the estates for part of the time, particularly during the cane-cutting seasons when a reasonable amount of money could be earned in a relatively short time by the concentration of considerable physical effort.  Attempts to grow cash crops such as cotton, coffee and arrowroot met with little success in the villages, and farming activities came to be little more than glorified kitchen gardening for home consumption.

    In 1863 the Eastern half of Plantation Belle Vue or Lot No. 22, was surveyed and partitioned into forty-four shares.  The present-day oral tradition is that the proprietors of St. Paul’s section bought this land, comprising some 250 acres, in order to bring the size of their holdings into line with that of Troy section, and it is true that the surnames of the majority of the original proprietors of Belle Vue correspond with those of the original proprietors of St. Paul’s section. [8]   However a number of new surnames appear on the Belle Vue list and there is no means of telling who these people were or where they came from.  They may have been the children of St. Paul’s women by men from other parts of the country, or they may have been new settlers.  Today Belle Vue has its own village council but it holds joint meetings with August Town and the same individual is chairman of both councils.  It is very much a part of the social unit of August Town and should be really considered as a sub-unit of the same order as Troy and St. Paul’s being closer to St. Paul’s and in some respects an extension of it.  It is separated from St. Paul’s section by a narrow private estate owned by an East Indian family, and on the other side of Belle Vue there are two private estates separating it from an East Indian village.  It is on this Belle Vue boundary of the village that there has been a slight inter-mixture of the Negro and East Indian groups.  A few Indian families actually live on Belle Vue land, and the adjoining estate is owned by an East Indian family which has kinship ties with many August Town Negro families through the intermarriage of a male member of the family with a woman from August Town.  Thus the physical boundary of the two villages August Town and the East Indian village is a stretch of private land owned by families with kinship ties in both villages.

    The opening up of the gold and diamond mining enterprises in the interior of the colony from around 1880 onwards, resulted in village men going off on extended trips as a regular feature, and the tapping of balata from the wild forest trees also became a well established male occupation requiring lengthy absences from the village. [9]   Today the older men in any village love to tell stories of their days in the interior, of the rivers and forests and mountains, of their feats and their exploits, and of the ‘buck Indians’.  This is their world of fantasy and the women roundly mock them and call them liars behind their backs.  More recently, work in the Bauxite mining towns of Kwakwani and McKenzie has provided an avenue of employment for August Town men and resulted in their spending long periods of time away from home.

Perseverance

Perseverance was settled as a village rather later than August Town.  According to local informants the land belonged to a Dutchman named Brummell prior to 1838, and it was later owned by the well-known Hogg family of England, and also by a private corporation.  It was certainly an abandoned estate when it was taken over by the ancestors of the present inhabitants, and there may have been| squatters living there prior to its legal acquisition which is placed around 1882.  Various accounts of the origin of the settlers are given, and one informant claims that ‘you had people from Africa anal from Dutch Guiana.  All them African people them die out’.  Other informants claim that some of the people came from the nearby estates of Devonshire Castle and Better Success.  Kirke, writing in 1898, says:–

    Better Success was an old, abandoned estate, where lived a number of Africans in a state of primitive barbarism.  The front dams of the estate had been broken down by the sea, and the tide swept in and out, under and around the houses of the inhabitants, which were built on greenheart piles; the road was washed away, and the only means of approach was in bateaux.  I once went to this place to open an inquest over a man, who was supposed to have been murdered.  I was astonished to see such numbers of fine stalwart people.  Their food was principally fish and rice; the former caught in great numbers out of the sea, the latter grown by coolies on a neighbouring settlement.

    As the tide was up, the people were wading through the water in all directions, most of them without clothes; only the older women seemed to think it was necessary to cover their nakedness in any way, although a few of the men sported a ragged pair of trousers or an old shirt.  There are several settlements of these Africans in various parts of the colony.  They are a fine, hardy race, hard working and prosperous, very different from the ordinary Creole black man.  They are the descendants of thirteen thousand Congoes, Mandingoes and other tribes, who were taken out of captured slavers and landed in the country, where they readily found employment.  The language these people talk is very peculiar, and perfectly unintelligible to a stranger (Kirke 1898: 143–4).

    This account of Better Success (which is now a privately owned estate), corresponds very closely to the kind of picture outsiders have of Perseverance, although there is no tradition of Perseverance villagers being descended from Africans brought in after emancipation.  Prior to 1950 Perseverance had practically no effective drainage or sea defence and the villagers were renowned for their semi-aquatic life, their supposed health and vigour, and for their independence.  There appears to have been a minimum of effective organization for maintaining the village works, but there was certainly some organization, and the pattern of land holding, etc., was substantially the same as that in August Town.  Perseverance villagers worked on the sugar estates, and when the last estate on the Essequibo Coast closed down in 1925 this was regarded as something in the nature of a major catastrophe.  Men now had to go further afield to find work as they do at the present time.

Better Hope

Like August Town, what we have called Better Hope is really composed of two separate settlements, and also like August Town they were purchased soon after emancipation by groups of ex-slaves.  There is still a traditional distinction made between Better Hope proper and the contiguous section known as Eldorado, and the official title of the village as a whole is Better Hope and Eldorado.  The history of this village does not differ materially from that of August Town and we shall not dwell upon it at length.  The main difference is that being close to Georgetown it has been much more affected by urban influences, and it came into the centralized local government system much earlier than did August Town.

    This historical sketch has been kept as brief as possible.  The intention has been to give a clear background to the present-day village structure and to highlight those antecedent developments which seemed most relevant.  The resultant impression is of groups of people forcibly transported to the estates of British Guiana from Africa and various other colonies of the New World, where they were fitted into a complex social system, occupying a given place within the total structure.  They developed enough cohesion in their sub-group to be able to establish village communities of their own after emancipation, and these were characterized by their ethnic identity, their peculiar culture or customs, their peculiar dialect and by their special place in the social system of the colony as a whole.  The further introduction of new ethnic groups in the nineteenth century modified the position of the Negro groups still further, but by the tail-end of the century the structural situation was essentially the same as it is today.  We have no reason to believe that the ‘culture’ of the Negro villages has changed substantially over the last hundred years or so despite the continued ‘culture contact’ situation, and it will be part of our thesis that the peculiar ‘culture’ of the Negro villages is correlated with their structural position in the Guianese social system.

 

ECOLOGY AND ECONOMY

It is crucial to make clear the fact that the village is not a bounded economic unit, except in so far as we decide to treat it as one for the purposes of description.  Farming activities and animal husbandry are balanced against participation in the labour market of the colony as a whole, for villagers sell their labour for wages outside the village as well as cultivating the soil within it.  This has important consequences for apart from the fact that it results in men spending considerable periods of time away from their families, it also ties in with the fact that the purchasing power of money is a more important asset than are non-consumable items of property such as land, which might in other circumstances form the basic means of production for household groups.

    Although British Guiana has an estimated area of 83,000 square miles, approximately 94 per cent of its population of 436,431 live on 3,000 square miles of coastland.  Approximately 85 per cent of the total area of the colony is forest land and 10.5 per cent is open savannah sparsely populated by Amerindians and a few cattle ranchers, gold miners, etc.  The relative inaccessibility of the interior lands and the great fertility of the coastal ribbon have been factors of some importance in the trend of development of the colony, but such ecological factors merely coincided with the primary interest in plantation cultivation in the most intensive period of settlement to produce the characteristic pattern of population distribution that we find today.  There has been no expanding frontier development despite the often expressed desire to open up the interior of the country.

    Water control is necessarily the major ecological problem of a country whose population is concentrated on a narrow coastal belt lying for the most part below the level of the high tides, and experiencing very heavy rainfall.

    The general principles upon which the drainage and irrigation system of a village is built are fairly simple.  A wall is thrown up along the seashore and another wall is built at the back of the estate to keep out accumulated rain-water which would otherwise drain through to the sea.  This water can be conserved for irrigation purposes.  In an area where there is a sufficient degree of organization, these two walls, the sea-wall and the back-dam, will be extended either way to link up with those of adjoining estates.  Down each side of the estate, side-line dams and trenches are built, the trenches being skilfully graded so that the accumulated water can be drained down through a sluice gate to the sea, this gate being closed against the sea at high tide (see Plate VIb).  Fig. I presents a schematic diagram showing the general layout of any typical coastal estate (villages are of course estates, and this diagram refers to village estates), and shows the main essentials of a drainage system.  This basic layout is capable of a great many modifications of course, and some of the sugar plantations are much more complicated pieces of engineering.  However in the three villages with which we are dealing the system is fundamentally the same as shown in the diagram.

    The proper maintenance of such a system requires a great deal of effort and an overall plan of administration.  Someone has to be employed to open the sluice gates and to close them again at the appropriate times; the trenches must be kept clear of silt and weeds; and the dams must be rebuilt as they begin to wear as the result of heavy rainfall or the constant passage of animals, carts, etc.  Since there is no stone easily available, village dams are usually built up from packed mud which wears very quickly, especially since the tops of the dams serve as roads and pathways.  A few villages metal the top surface of their dams with brick (burnt earth) but even this does not prolong the life of the dam very much.

    It would be difficult to over-emphasize the importance of the peculiar nature of the country and its effect of imposing a pattern of corporate group life almost as a condition of existence, but on the other hand it must be remembered that there was never any iron necessity for this.  Some villages in British Guiana have let their drainage and irrigation works deteriorate to a point where they live a semi-aquatic existence and just don’t bother about the repeated flooding of their lands.  For many years the inhabitants of Perseverance did practically no farming on their village lands, and the fact that they had to wade waist deep in water to get to the public road was of little consequence to them.  Such villages often specialized in fishing, particularly for shrimps, and the possibility of finding employment on the sugar estates has always meant that the Negro villager is not wholly dependent on farming as a means of livelihood.  Of course only a limited number of villages at any one time could be completely unproductive or the production of food crops would fall below a necessary minimum, but farming has been, and is, very much a secondary occupation to the Negro.  On the slave plantations small plots of land were given to the slaves for the purpose of growing food and the fact that slaves often sold their surplus produce in the markets did not make them farmers.  After emancipation the new villages were established and operated by a remarkable feat of cooperation, but this co-operation has always been difficult to maintain, not least of all because men have found it difficult to meet the demands it made upon their labour when they wished to sell that labour for wages outside the village.  By the time a village has come under the aegis of the local government system, real co-operation has been replaced by a system of cash payments which are obligatory under the law of the colony as a whole.  Ever since the villages were first established the tendency has been in this direction, and the initial feats of co-operative endeavour never crystallized into a strong continuing system.  The present-day local government system has been described by Simey (1946), Hinden (1950) and Laing (1949), but these writers tend to ignore the fact that in practice the villages are heavily dependent on agencies of the central government both for supervision and administrative assistance and often for financial aid (see Smith 1955 and Report of the British Guiana Constitutional Commission 1954 (Cmd. 9274) H.M.S.O., London).

    If we try to look at the economic system of the village as a whole we find that there is really no sense in which the village functions as a sub-system of the total economy of the colony.  There is instead a series of lines where the economy of the whole society cuts across the village as a unit.  For example, villagers participate in the economic life of the sugar estates, but these estates are external organizations so far as the village is concerned.  Similarly farmers produce rice which is sold to external agencies, and they may even engage tractors to do part of the cultivation, but the tractors are also external to the village.  Whilst we must bear in mind this intrusion of external economic factors, for the purpose of simple analysis such as we require at the moment we may look at the village as though it were a distinct unit and try to see how the economy fits on to its political, territorial and social organization.

Farming

Farming is the first sector of the economy with which we shall deal, and there is a fairly close correspondence between the organization of economic activities and village structure.  Successful farming depends upon adequate drainage and irrigation and this is most directly organized at a village level, even though a large measure of administrative control rests with officials of the central government.  It is not organized by individual farmers or by households.  In all three villages the farm lands are divided into large blocks on which different kinds of crops are grown.  Thus we speak of the ‘provision area’, the ‘rice lands’ and the ‘cattle-grazing area’ (see Map 2).  Each village is made up of lands which are the freehold property of the villagers, but in the case of August Town there are certain lands used for rice cultivation and cattle grazing which are leased from the Crown on a long lease at very low rental.  They do not all come under the direct control of the village council although they are really an extension of the village lands, but there is a basic similarity in their mode of control.  In the first place these lands must be drained through the village drainage system and the local authority takes full responsibility for this.  Secondly the lands are leased from government in exactly the same way that the village lands were purchased after emancipation.  That is, two men take out a lease on behalf of a number of villagers and then the land is allocated in strips between the participating shareholders who all contribute towards the rental, the cost of building low dams or ‘empoldering’, and the cost of buying any wire fencing that may be necessary.  One block of Crown land is actually leased by the council and allocated to farmers in this way.  Rice is always cultivated in large blocks divided into individual holdings, and is kept distinct from the ‘provision’ area, which is similarly divided into strips.  The reasons for this are obvious, since rice fields require to be flooded at certain stages of the plant’s growth.

    In the provision area, which is freehold land in all three villages, the land is divided into individual strips known as ‘beds’ (see Map 2) and they run laterally across the village from the side-line trenches to the middle drainage trenches.  Originally each bed was an individual holding but through sub-division a single bed may be divided into as many as four separately owned sections.  In August Town the majority of beds are about 800 x 30 feet in Troy section, and 450 x 57 feet in St. Paul’s section, averaging a little over half an acre per bed in both sections.  The greater part of Belle Vue section is now used for rice cultivation and when it was repartitioned in 1952, it was divided into varying sized lots, but very few were over one acre, and the majority were less.  Perseverance was also repartitioned in 1951, and individuals who had consolidated a few holdings may have beds of three or more acres, but again the majority of beds are in the region of one acre, and even where there are large beds, it is most likely that they are being cultivated by several different persons (Smith 1955: 76).

    On these small plots of land a variety of crops is grown, the majority being for home consumption or for sale within the village.  Cassava, yams, sweet potato, plantains, eddoes, tannia, squash, pumpkin, corn, ockro, boulangers, peas, beans, calalloo (spinach), and fruits and nuts are often grown mixed up together, without any attempt to separate the various plants.  This is not always the case and there may be definite grouping of the plants, but the term ‘mixed provisions’ is commonly used to designate the crop growing on a particular bed, and it is to be taken as a literal description.  Before a provision bed can be planted it has to be cleared of bush and this is done by the ‘slash and burn’ method.  The undergrowth is hacked down by cutlass and burnt before the bed is forked over ready for planting.  After the initial clearing of a bed it is worked for about five to seven years before being allowed to return to bush for fallowing for upwards of five years.  During the period when the bed is being worked, crops are planted almost continuously, and reaped as they ripen or as they are required.  Cassava in particular can be planted at any time of the year, and it can be left in the ground without deteriorating until it is required.  There is therefore no well demarcated cycle of planting and harvesting seasons so far as ground provisions are concerned, and the harvest festivals celebrated in the churches are based upon the English church calendar, being delayed just a little to coincide with the rice harvest in late September or October.

    The bulk of the produce of provision farms is consumed by the producer or sold within the village, but some is bought by itinerant dealers who are mostly Negro women from other villages, or East Indians.  The quantities sold are usually quite small and the transactions will rarely exceed a few dollars at the most (One dollar [B.W.I.] = four shillings and two pence, or fifty-five cents [U.S.]).  Selling within the village is done by women or children who go around from house to house, or by women at the one market of the week held in August Town.  From Perseverance a few farmers take provisions to markets at Charity or Anna Regina (each 7 miles away),and there is also a government depot at Charity which buys produce for transport to Georgetown by schooner.  The farmers in Better Hope sell their produce either to middlemen (‘hucksters’) who transport it to Georgetown and the sugar estates, or they sell it themselves in the local markets.  The general rule amongst rural Negro cultivators is that you sell wherever you can, whenever you need money sufficiently badly to take the trouble to seek a market This is not true for all farmers, and in Perseverance and Better Hope the proximity of markets with a constant demand leads some farmers to produce regularly for it.

    Apart from provision farms there is a certain amount of produce grown in kitchen gardens on the house lots, particularly in Better Hope where animals are more satisfactorily controlled and less constant attention to fences is required.  Again the bulk of kitchen garden produce is used for domestic consumption, and the methods of cultivation are exactly the same as in the case of provision farms except that manure from the animal pens may be used.  Very few villagers grow provisions on land outside the village as there is no shortage of this type of land within the village boundaries.  In fact it is much more likely that a few beds of provision land will be rented to outsiders, including East Indians from neighbouring settlements.

    In the early days of village settlement some attempt seems to have been made to grow cash crops such as cotton and coffee, but these attempts were never very successful.  Markets were not particularly good, and the village cultivator could not hope to compete with the plantations.  Sugar has never been widely grown as a peasant crop in British Guiana and the few cane farmers there are in the colony are all concentrated on the East Coast of Demerara near to a few large plantations which buy their crop.  Out of a total colony sugar production of 217,306 tons in 1951, only 1,070 tons were produced from canes supplied by small farms (Colonial Reports–British Guiana 1951, London: H.M.S.O. 1953: 50).  It is rice which has developed as the basic cash crop for the small farmer, but in the Negro villages the cultivation of rice is still very much a supplementary activity for the great majority of farmers, yielding only part of their total cash requirements.  East Indian and Chinese immigrants established rice cultivation on a commercial basis and the Negro villages seem to have taken it up when the milling and marketing facilities had been developed to a point which made it worth their while.  Originally they grew only a small amount for subsistence purposes and only began to sell surpluses as the demand increased.  At the time of the study there were some 540 acres of Crown lands under rice in August Town, and in addition to this, rice was grown on about 120 acres of freehold land in Belle Vue section.  Some August Town farmers were also planting rice on rented lands lying outside the village boundaries.  Perseverance had 213 acres of village land under rice in 1952, and Perseverance farmers were cultivating some 140 acres of rice on various rented and leased lands outside the village.  Exact acreages were not collected for Better Hope but it was clear that far fewer villagers planted rice than in the other two villages, and much more of the village land was rented out to non-villagers, and particularly to East Indians.

    The methods of cultivation employed by the Negro farmer tend to be extremely rudimentary and the real progress in establishing a flourishing rice industry based on a high degree of mechanization is being made by the East Indians rather than the Negroes.  The only mechanical farm equipment owned and operated by any member of the three Negro communities studied was that owned by a Coloured (mixed Negro and European) man in August Town, and where mechanical equipment was used at all on Negro farms it was hired from outside the village.

    Despite the possibility of planting and reaping two crops every year owing to the double wet and dry seasons, very few Negro farmers take the trouble to try for a double crop.  The ploughing of the rice fields begins as soon as the weather is dry enough after Christmas, and some August Town farmers began to plough before the end of January in 1952.  February and March are the main ploughing months, and unless tractor-driven ploughs are hired the work is done by light ox-drawn ploughs of a very simple design, the plough share being bought in one of the Georgetown hardware stores.

    Towards the end of March, as the rainy season approaches, the padi is sown by ‘shieing’ or hand broadcasting.  August Town farmers scatter about seventy pounds of seed to the acre, which is twenty pounds more than is strictly necessary, but since they generally use seed kept from the previous crop rather than high grade selected seed-padi the excess probably compensates for a low germination rate.  Once the seed has been scattered, it is left to germinate when the rains come and no further attention is paid to it until harvest time. [10]   Of course water control is very important during the period when the rice is growing, but this is a matter for the sluice-watchman to decide in collaboration with the village overseer.  By building temporary dams, or ‘stop-offs’, it is possible to keep the rice fields flooded whilst ensuring adequate drainage for the other farm areas and the dwelling area, but of course it is impossible to regulate the amount of rainfall, and a lack of rain at the crucial period of growth can be disastrous.  The more laborious method of transplanting prepared seedlings is not very popular amongst Negro cultivators though it is more common in Perseverance than in the other two villages.

    As the padi begins to ripen around the beginning of September the main job of harvesting gradually gets under way, and this is the one activity in the village which mobilizes the labour of men, women, and, to a limited extent, children, all at one time.  However, there is practically no cooperative activity involved.  Each farmer is concerned with his own crop, but the available resources of labour and equipment manage to get distributed in such a way that every one is able to harvest his or her crop.  There is very little development of a system of reciprocal kinship obligations, and although ties of kinship or friendship may be invoked as the basis for reciprocal help, the main mechanism operates through the medium of monetary exchange.  Reaping requires the greatest number of hands, and the bulk of this work is carried out by women who are paid according to the area they cut.  We shall have more to say about this in the next chapter.  In Perseverance this system of monetary payment is not quite so highly developed, but a farmer who has planted more rice than can be reaped by the members of his own household group will certainly have to pay for labour, either in cash or by returning an equal amount of labour under what is known as the ‘day for day’ system.  In August Town, cash payment for rice cutting is the rule even between members of the same household group.

    Mechanical reaping is very little practiced in either village and even in areas where mechanical equipment is available, it is not always possible to use it owing to the fact that the heavy-grained stalks tend to fall down flat in front of the mechanical cutters Threshing is either carried out by bulls which tread the grain from the straw, or in the case of Perseverance, by beating the heads of the sheaves on a table with a slotted top, the grain falling on to sheets spread beneath (see Plate IVb).  The threshed padi is packed in 140 lb.  bags which are transported by donkey or bullock carts to the dwelling area or to the railway line to await shipment to the mills A part of the crop will probably be retained for domestic consumption and for seed for the following year, though some farmers lodge the padi they require for domestic consumption with a miller, and during the course of the year they can withdraw it in the form of milled rice on payment of a milling fee.  This amounts to about $2.00 per bag of padi, which yields about half a bag of clean rice.  In Perseverance there is one small mill catering for domestic needs and padi can be milled there by the bucketful as it is required.  Alternatively women may pound the padi in a mortar and winnow it on a special winnowing tray, but this method is rarely used today in any of the villages.

    Padi which is surplus to domestic requirements is sold either to one of the government rice mills, or to a private miller through a village agent.  In either case the net return per bag of padi was approximately $4.75 in August Town in 1951, and a normal yield for an August Town farmer would be about fifteen bags of padi to the acre.  The cost of cultivating one acre would be in the region of $50.00 so that the farmer would make a profit of about $21.25 on each acre if he paid for the land to be ploughed and the crop to be reaped.  This figure takes no account of rent, rates, or depreciation on capital equipment such as carts, sickles and so on.  Whilst the profit is fairly high if looked at from the point of view of return on capital invested, the income derived from this source is certainly not high when it is remarked that one of the biggest August Town rice farmers planted only twenty-two acres of rice in 1952.  Not all the padi reaped is sold of course, for a certain amount is retained for home consumption, and this cuts down cash income considerably where the acreage planted is small.  One general consideration to be borne in mind is the risk of failure in planting rice at all, for unfavourable weather conditions, or faulty drainage and irrigation, can quite easily render the crop a total loss.

Animal Husbandry

In any coastal village in British Guiana livestock is very much in evidence, and cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, fowls, turkeys, ducks, cats and dogs wander about the village under varying degrees of control.  In many of the Negro villages there is a perpetual battle raging over the allegations of damage to crops by uncontrolled animals, and actions for damage are frequently heard in the courts.  This is not merely the result of bad management, but is also tied in with the fact that there is very little systematic feeding of livestock, and pasturage is generally inadequate.

    There is no systematic breeding of cattle for particular purposes, but the agricultural department has made some attempt to raise the standard of the stock by introducing Zebu and Holstein bulls which are made available to the villager for crossing with his creole cattle.  The creole cattle are generally small, the bulls weighing about 800 pounds and the cows about 500 pounds when fully grown, and they quite definitely give the appearance of being under-fed.  No attempt is made to develop dairy cattle as opposed to beef cattle, and all cows are milked, and all eventually killed for beef.  In August Town there is a large expanse of grazing land beyond the rice area which is leased from government and used as a communal pasture by those cattle owners participating in the joint lease.  The pasture is some four to five miles from the dwelling area and it generally falls to young boys to drive the cattle to and from the pasture when it is necessary.  After the rice harvest the cattle are put to graze in the rice fields which means that there is a certain amount of natural manuring.  Perseverance has no satisfactory grazing area at all that it can call its own, but there is a neighbouring estate owned by an East Indian where cattle can be grazed upon payment of an agistment fee of 60¢ per head per month.  A few farmers lease Crown lands for grazing but this pasture is about five miles from the village.  Fewer villagers keep cattle in Better Hope and they use the village foreshore or a small grazing area between the dwelling and cultivation areas.

    Milk yields are low and the general procedure is to milk the cows after they have been corralled away from the calves overnight.  The calf is allowed to feed for a few moments until the milk is flowing, and then the cow is milked before being turned out with the calves for the rest of the day.  Eight pints of milk per day is considered to be a fairly high yield and many cattle owners milk out considerably less, so that there is no real attempt at specialized milk production.  Most bulls are castrated during the animal’s first year and are then used for draught purposes.  The number of cattle kept by farmers is generally small and in Perseverance no villager had more than six animals, with the exception of one East Indian store-keeper who had about thirty-five head, and one Negro carpenter who kept about forty head on leased lands outside the village.  In August Town the figures would be very little different, except that there would be a greater number of persons owning about ten animals, as there are more adequate grazing facilities.  There is one butcher in August Town who slaughters one animal per week, and this is not always obtained from a village cattle-owner.  The meat is sold in the village, but the choicest cuts go to the Government Compound at Fort Nelson, and the rest is distributed amongst those of the 1,700 villagers who can afford to buy it.  Perseverance has no butcher and any fresh meat that is bought comes from a village seven miles away, but fresh meat is not a regular part of the diet of the majority of Perseverance villagers.  In Better Hope there is a fairly large abattoir and the number of animals slaughtered per week varies.  However meat is distributed more uniformly through the population than in the other two villages owing to the greater quantities available and to the higher purchasing power of the majority of families, as well as being sold on other parts of the coast.

    Cattle, or indeed livestock of any kind, are not counted as a symbol of wealth or status, but in the system of internal differentiation in the village there is a tendency for the wealthier persons, who are generally non-Negroes, to own the largest number of animals, but this is a result of their pattern of economic activities rather than a sign of their superior status.

    Pig rearing is more highly developed in Better Hope than in the other two villages, and pigs are usually kept in pens in the vicinity of the house and fed with prepared pig feed.  Wherever the making of coconut oil has become established as a small scale industry, pig rearing on a slightly larger scale becomes feasible since the pigs can be fed on the by-products of the oil extraction process.  At the time of the study there were very few oil manufacturers, who could maintain their production because of the government plan to increase the production of copra by offering the growers high prices and imposing limits on the sale of locally made crude oil.  Consequently many manufacturers who had been rearing pigs as a side-line were forced to slaughter their pigs when they could no longer compete with the government in purchasing copra.  The price of prepared pig feed is generally too high for August Town or Perseverance farmers and the number of pigs they keep is usually determined by the degree to which they are able to allow their pigs to ‘graze’ or scavenge about the village.  Even when this is done the animals’ diet must be supplemented by home-made mash composed of boiled wild grasses and household surpluses, such as there are.  Most pigs are hybrid, being ‘creole’ stock crossed with Berkshire or Tamworth breeds.  They are generally killed for home consumption on special occasions such as at Christmas time, but in August Town and Perseverance one or two are killed for sale from time to time.  Better Hope rearers can always find a market for pigs in the town and some are slaughtered for local consumption.

    Sheep and goats are kept almost exclusively for sale outside the village, and particularly to buyers from the East Indian communities.  Goats are not milked.  There are quite considerable numbers of goats and sheep in both August Town and Perseverance, and they tend to be kept in reasonably large numbers by a few persons rather than each household having one or two.  They are put out to graze on a small pasture or in the ‘wood bush’ near to the village, and it is not at all unusual to see sheep spending a considerable amount of time in swampy ground with water up to their bellies.  It is usually the older men, who are less spatially mobile, who keep sheep and goats, whilst pigs are frequently reared by women.  Both sheep and goats cause a considerable amount of damage to growing crops, particularly to kitchen gardens in the dwelling areas where they wander freely in most villages.

As a result of continuous hybridization, a ‘creole’ variety of poultry has been developed which is hardy and fairly small, but strains of such varieties as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rock and Leghorn can be distinguished.  Almost every household keeps a few fowls which scratch around the yard and are fed a little padi when there is enough to spare.  There is generally a brisk trade in eggs, and some women go around buying from different households to meet orders from outside the village.  The consumption of eggs within the domestic group is almost solely confined to ceremonial occasions when cakes are made.  The fowls themselves are consumed on similar occasions and the rest are sold to buyers from outside the village.  Again a pattern of trade with East Indians has grown up in August Town, and regular visits are paid to the village by Indian buyers.

    A few donkeys are kept as draught animals, and there are one or two horses in August Town and Better Hope which are used either for riding long distances to the backlands or for racing at holiday seasons.

 

Methods of earning cash wages

Apart from the money accruing from the sale of padi, earned wages account for the bulk of the cash intake of the village.  These wages come from a variety of sources, but work on the sugar estates is one source common to all three villages, and it has always been the typical kind of employment open to residents of the rural areas.  Such work is largely seasonal, and is generally paid on a task basis, which means that there is a minimum of ‘time-keeping’ or regular working hours.  It is during the cane-cutting seasons that the Negro labour force is recruited most fully, when extra hands are needed to supplement the main supply of resident East Indian labour.  On many estates, special ranges of bachelor quarters are provided to accommodate seasonal labourers.  From August Town a number of men travel across the Berbice river to an estate near Canje Creek where they stay during the cutting season, occasionally travelling back to the village whenever they feel like it.  The fact that they go to work on an estate so far away when there is a cutting estate within daily walking distance of the village is extremely interesting.  The reason given for the preference for the more distant estate is that they like the manager there, but this seems to be a rationalization of a more fundamental predisposition to spatial mobility on the part of men.  Not all August Town cane-cutters go to this estate but certainly a majority do.

    In Perseverance the situation is rather different for there have been no sugar estates on the Essequibo Coast since 1925 and therefore men have to travel to Demerara to find work.  The whole of the Essequibo Coast is regarded as a depressed area, and there is certainly very little scope for funding employment there, with the result that there is both a marked seasonal migration and a certain amount of permanent migration to other parts of the colony, and particularly to Georgetown.  Out of a total adult male population (over 18 years) of approximately 151 in Perseverance, it is estimated that about ninety to one hundred men regularly spend the cane-cutting season working on estates in Demerara.  There is the same tendency for all the men to go to one estate that is found in August Town, and in the case of Perseverance the main group goes to Plantation Diamond, on the east bank of the Demerara River.  The rest go either to Plantation Uitvlugt or Plantation Leonora, two neighbouring estates on the west coast of Demerara.  In Perseverance, the pattern of regular seasonal migration is firmly fixed, and for the majority of Perseverance men this tends to be the only type of labour which takes them away from home.  By and large, the regularity of the migrations tends to give a certain stability to the economic activities of the men which is not found to the same extent in August Town.

    The wages paid to sugar workers are not high as the averages for the whole industry show.  In 1951 the average weekly earnings of adult male, non-resident piece workers was $9.72 (£2 0s. 6d.).  Since the majority of men from Perseverance and August Town who engage in this type of employment are temporarily living away from home it means that they have to meet their own expenses for food and washing, at least, before they can calculate how much they will send home to their families.  Many cane-cutters make much more money than the average wages might indicate, for the Negro prides himself on being a strong and able worker, and when he does turn out to work on the estates he usually does a good job.  Despite this fact it is abundantly clear that the wages earned by a good worker during the two cutting seasons would be quite inadequate to keep himself and his family for the whole year.  There is practically no attempt to spread the earnings over a long period of time, and the money is usually spent as fast as it is earned, and in some cases even before it is earned.  After the rice harvest is in, one actually hears men saying that they are going off to the sugar estates to earn their ‘Christmas money’.  This means that they are going to accumulate enough ready cash to celebrate the Christmas holiday in an appropriately festive manner.

    In addition to this seasonal work cutting the sugar cane, there are opportunities for other types of work on the estates.  A few August Town men work as labourers on the maintenance of the sugar estates’ drainage and irrigation works, and for this type of job a system of indirect employment is generally used.  One man acts as a contractor to the estate manager, and he employs a group of men to work for him, usually paying them on a piece-rate basis.  Most of the work involves digging ditches and making up dams and is paid by the rod.  (One rod = 12ft 4in.)  Women are also employed on some of the lighter tasks such as weeding, and this affords an opportunity ,or young women to earn money in their own right.  Perseverance men usually leave the estates when the cane-cutting season is over, for it is hardly worth their while to stay on waiting for a few days’ piecework now and again.  Better Hope supplies a certain number of factory workers to the adjoining estates and some villagers are highly skilled technicians.  Sugar boilers are amongst the élite of the sugar industry and their skill commands high wages both in British Guiana and in the other West Indian islands, where they often go to work for six months or so at a time.  These technicians enjoy prestige within the village community, often ranking almost as high as the school-teachers.  Neither Perseverance nor August Town has a comparable degree of differentiation of this kind, and Better Hope is the only one of the three villages to have a sizeable group of regularly employed skilled artisans.

    For generations men from the coastal Negro communities have supplied the bulk of the labour for the mining industry, and this is still an important source of employment for many village men From about 1890 onwards, men from all three villages took part in the rapid opening up of the gold and diamond fields, but today there are relatively few men engaged on work in these smaller mining enterprises (see Cameron 1934, Bk. II: 61).  The growth of the bauxite industry after the first World War, and its rapid expansion during the second, provided a new outlet for the migrant Negro worker.  For some reason August Town men went to the bauxite workings in large numbers, and in keeping with the tendency for the men from one village to keep together during their migrations to the sugar estates, August Town became almost ‘specialized’ in bauxite. [11]   Almost 200 men and youths from August Town are employed at either Kwakwani or McKenzie City at any one time (there were 338 adult males in August Town at the time of the study, and though many of these migrate periodically to the sugar estates etc., the men at McKenzie and Kwakwani are not included in this number), and the migrations to these two mining towns appear to be taking on an aspect of greater permanence than formerly.  This is very difficult to estimate, but it does appear that more young men are taking their wives and children with them than was the case in the past. The bauxite industry is highly mechanized and the resulting differentiation of occupations into skilled and semi-skilled jobs means that a young man has the opportunity of some sort of progressive advancement, and the old uniformity of the ‘labourer’ category is broken up to some extent.  There is a positive inducement for some of the men to stay on as regular employees rather than regarding the work as just another labouring job to be held for a short time before seeking a change.  No studies were carried out at either of the bauxite towns but it would be interesting to discover how much internal social differentiation has developed within the Negro groups there.  In the case of August Town then, employment at the bauxite mines forms a very special part of the village economy, and it has gradually tended to become distinct from all the other forms of employment in the mining industries of the interior.  It forms a special part of the village economy because workers send a considerable part of their total earnings back to relatives in the village, and particularly to their mothers and to the mothers of their children. [12]   Other occupations in the interior lands are definitely regarded as temporary jobs, and they include gold and diamond mining, balata bleeding,  employment with companies extracting other minerals such as manganese, and an occasional job in connexion with the driving of cattle down from the savannahs to the coast.  Neither Perseverance nor Better Hope have a comparable number of men working in the bauxite industry, but a few men from both villages engage in the other activities at any one time, and probably most of the older men have worked in the interior of the colony at some time or other.

 

Economic specialization within the village.

Although we have stressed the lack of occupational specialization our description would be both incomplete and misleading unless we briefly outlined the actual differentiations which do occur.  It is part of our thesis that the Negro group in British Guiana constitutes a functionally differentiated subgroup of the total social system of the colony, and this differentiation runs through the economic system.  Whilst this is a primary consideration to be borne in mind in any discussion of the village as a unit we are now concerned with the actual range of specialized occupations which occur within the actual territorial unit.  The village is not solely composed of Negroes, and the presence of Chinese, Portuguese, East Indian and Coloured persons gives us a link with the total social system which serves to emphasize the fact that even the village as a unit is not coincident with the boundaries of the Negro sub-group.  There are villages in British Guiana which have almost equal proportions of Negroes and East Indians, but of course this does not destroy ethnic distinctions.

    Shops and the retailing of imported or non-village products are mainly in the hands of non-Negroes, and we shall delay their consideration until a later chapter when we are concerned with an examination of other than purely economic factors (see Chapter VIII).  We may just note here that the shops form an integral part of the village economy for they are the main channels through which money flows out of the village.  It enters in the form of earnings from the sugar states, bauxite mines, government work etc., and from receipts for farm produce sold outside the village.  In the case of Better Hope the system is not so closed, for money is often both earned and spent outside the village by its resident members.  However, shops in all three villages do supply a range of essential commodities, and there s a definite tendency to buy locally rather than going farther afield the principal items stocked by the village shops and stores are as follows:­–

GROCERY SHOPS


Rice

Salt-fish

Salt-beef

Salt-pork (pig-tails)

Smoked herring

Salt

Pepper

Curry powder

Marsala and coriander seeds

Cooking oil

Lard

Margarine (‘salt butter’)

‘Irish’ potatoes

Garlic

Onions

Flour

Yeast

Sugar

Matches

Kerosene

Patent medicines

Cigarettes


Various canned goods, coffee, tea, etc., which are only rarely purchased by the average village household.

 

STORES

 

Cloth

Thread

Needles

Shoes

Hats

Shirts

Cutlasses

Sickles (‘grass knives’)

School books, pens, etc.

Cooking utensils

Plates and other domestic ware

Glasses


Various small items of hardware such as spoons, penknives, cheap children’s toys, etc.

 

CAKE SHOPS

Cakes, bread, sweets, aerated drinks, cigarettes.

     |

RUM SHOPS

Rum, beer, wine.

Whisky and brandy are usually stocked but have very little sale except in case of sickness.

 

It is clear that the rural shops do not present a wide range of consumer goods, and most of the higher status persons in the village make a point of buying household furnishings and luxury items from the towns.  In some villages persons such as school-teachers form co-operative purchasing groups and buy their foodstuffs monthly from a Georgetown firm.  The city and town stores are quite definitely organized to cater to customers on a class basis and the average villager would feel rather uncomfortable in one of the more expensive stores.  In fact it is only a very small minority of persons who would consider buying in town at all, except in the case of Better Hope, and even then they would tend to buy in the lower-class stores staffed by Chinese or East Indians rather than in those staffed by light coloured girls.  Cumper mentions the limitations on spending opportunities for lower-class workers in Jamaica and argues that this is one factor affecting the worker’s response to wage incentive schemes (Cumper 1953: 33).  Despite the limited range of commodities available in rural Guiana shops one does encounter seemingly anomalous situations.  For example, persons with a low standard of living will buy relatively expensive commodities such as ‘Ovaltine’ in a very small shop in Perseverance.  This seems to be symptomatic of the lack of concern with ‘economizing’ or showing planned selectivity in purchasing which is very similar to the situation obtaining in the lower status groups in a Scottish mining community reported on by C. S. Wilson (Wilson 1953: 336).

    We have already discussed the major productive activities of village inhabitants and indicated that they tend to be followed by everyone to some extent.  Rice growing, provision farming, stock rearing, and estate work are not specialized occupations, but are components in a general pattern of employment followed by most male villagers, particularly in Perseverance and August Town.  Work in the bauxite mines and various occupations in the interior of the colony have also tended to be supplementary rather than exclusive pursuits, the difference being that they take up a longer period of time.  Perseverance most nearly approaches the pattern of mixed activities with the bulk of the male population going off to the sugar estates in the cutting season and returning to their farms for the rest of the time.  But there is yet another range of occupations which we can most easily call ‘trades’ which enter the picture.

    In any Guianese Negro village, one can always find a relatively large number of men who call themselves carpenters.  A few will spend the major part of their time actually working at this trade, but the majority only get a job now and again.  Even those who spend most time working at the trade will also probably grow rice, plant provisions and keep stock, and this applies to all the trades we shall mention.  Only in Better Hope is the division of labour carried to the point where we find men who work full-time as carpenters, masons, painters, sugar-boilers, shoe-makers, etc.  Whilst it is true that there is a high demand for carpenters in a country where houses are constructed almost entirely from wood, this does not explain why there should be a surfeit of men who are able to turn their hand to this trade as a means of earning money.  It is likely that there is an element of prestige involved here which fits in with the over-all value system of the society, and on the other hand there is a block to the development of a high degree of specialization which is the result of the solidarity and lack of internal differentiation of the ascriptively based lower-class Negro groupings (see Chapter VIII).

    In August Town there were two tailors, one a Negro and one a mixed Negro-Portuguese, and at the time of the study there was a blacksmith-wheelwright who was a ‘stranger’ from New Amsterdam.  The shoemaker was a village-born Negro who also planted rice and provisions, and all the village council employees—overseer, sluice watchman, and two rangers—were local Negro part-time farmers.  One off-shore fisherman worked a boat with his brother, but whenever the nets got damaged by sharks he would go and work on the sugar estates in order to accumulate enough capital to repair them.  Two or three men were barbers, but hair-cutting is very much a spare time occupation and no specialized ritual or ceremonial features adhere to it.  One Coloured man kept a hire-car, but his main occupation was as a truck driver and mechanic for the Public Works Department.  One bicycle-repair shop was run by a mixed Negro-Portuguese, but he also cultivated a large provision garden, in which he planted special crops such as tomatoes.  When the Public Works Department requires brick for resurfacing the road the district foreman usually orders it from a contractor who ‘burns a heap’ of earth.  One man in August Town was an active contractor for this kind of job and he employed villagers to work with him, including women who carry the earth in baskets on their heads.

    Women’s primary function is as mothers and housewives but they engage in a whole range of money-making activities as well as running farms and keeping livestock.  We have already dealt with some of the jobs which women take, such as estate work and helping with the burning of the earth to make brick for the road.  The breaking of this brick prior to laying it is also a woman’s job, and women sit in the sun by the side of the road breaking the large rough lumps of red brick with a small hammer.  They are paid on a task basis and may make up to about $1.00 per day if they work continuously during the daylight hours.  The rate of payment is $2.50 for breaking up one truck load.  This is just one of the many ‘rough’ jobs that women may do but they are all casual occupations and are the least desirable of all women’s jobs.  Dressmaking is a much more highly-rated feminine occupation, and even married women may work at home as dressmakers without their husbands feeling ashamed.  The mere possession of a sewing machine usually indicates that the household is better off and may even symbolize respectability to some extent.  A certain number of women find jobs as domestic servants with higher status families such as the head-teachers, government officials, or on the sugar estates, and some women work as washers for wealthier families or for single men.

    There is some danger of over-simplifying the occupational pattern in trying to present it concisely, and it must be borne in mind that the following list is merely an enumeration of the major economic activities which are open to men and women.  Any particular individual may engage in several occupations in as short a time as one week or even one day, so that this is not a list of specializations.  It must also be noted that the list covers all three villages and all occupations do not occur in all three.  For example Perseverance has no blacksmith, no butcher, no tinsmith, and no crude oil manufacturers, nor are there any government servants such as sanitary inspectors or midwives resident in the village.

 

TABLE 1

LIST OF PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS

OCCUPATION

 

Participated in by men

Participated in by women

1. Within the Village

 

 

 

(a) Farming

 

 

 

Provision Farming

Clearing Bush

Planting

Weeding

Reaping

X

X
X
X

Very Rarely

X
X
X

Rice Farming

Ploughing

Broadcast Planting

Hand Transplanting

Reaping

Threshing

X
X
X
X
X

Rarely

X

X

Animal Husbandry

Cattle Keeping

Goats and Sheep

Pigs

Poultry

X
X
X
X

Occasionally

Occasionally

X
X

(b) Local Authority Work

Maintenance of Drainage & Irrigation System

Administration (Overseer, rangers, sluice watchman)

 

 

 

 

 

X

X

 

 

 

(c) Trades

Carpenter

Tailor

Painter

Mechanic (incl Bicycle Repair)

Blacksmith/Wheelwright

Shoemaker

Mason

Butcher

Off-shore Fisherman

Dressmaker

Tinsmith & Guttersmith

 

 

 

 

 

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

 

X

(d) High status jobs

School-teacher

Midwife

Health visitor

Sanitary Inspector

Public Works Overseer

Agricultural Instructor

(All serve a larger area than one village)

 

 

X

X

X

X

 

X

X

X

(e) Other

Small scale trading of farm produce

Selling prepared foods

Shopkeeper (i) Cake-shops

(ii) Larger shops

Cook

Domestic Servant

Washer

“Huckster” (buying & selling farm produce, poultry, eggs, etc.)

Copra and crude oil manufacturer

Baker, cakemaker

 

   

Rarely

X

X

 

X

X

 

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

 

Rarely

X

2. Outside the Village

(a) Sugar Estates

Cane Cutter

‘Driver’ or foreman

Shovelman

General labour such as weeding, etc.

Trades such as carpenter, cooper, etc.

Sugar Boiler

Punt Operator

 

 

 

 

 

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

   

 

Sometimes assist men

X

(b) Bauxite mines

Principally men who go to bauxite mines and engage in a series of occupations from unskilled labourer to storeman, barman, mechanical shovel operator, etc., but a few women go to the bauxite towns to find work, mainly as cooks, washers, etc..

 

 

 

(c) General

Gold and diamond mining

Labourers for Public Works Dept. (includes burning brick, breaking brick, etc.)

Domestic Servant

Tradesmen (e.g. carpenter)

Work as agricultural labour for large farmers, government rice plantations, etc.

Police

Post Office workers

 

   

X

X

 

 

X

X

 

 

X

X

 

X

 

 

X

X

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion

  The relative non-differentiation of the village population is a crucial fact, and it is only in Better Hope that real specialization becomes important though even there it is only slightly developed.  This has important implications for our central problem of family structure, for it means that economic and occupational factors do not operate as variables in correlation with varying types of family structure within the groups we are studying.  Economic and occupational differences are of vital importance when we come to discuss the village populations in relation to the total society, and at this level they are certainly correlated in some way with variation in family structure, though it is not necessarily a primary correlation.  Within the villages, the important fact is that to a very large extent any individual could replace any other individual in the occupational system without too much difficulty, though we would except the schoolteacher and government servant group from this generalization and one has to realize that it is only an approximate generalization.  Age and sex factors have to be taken into consideration, as well as the few specializations we have mentioned.  The generalization would apply most nearly to Perseverance and would be only very approximate in the case of Better Hope, which is another way of saying that Perseverance is the most homogeneous of the three villages in this respect.

Another important point we have made is that men spend a considerable part of their time away from the village working for cash  wages.  This is reflected in the following table which shows the sex ratios of the adult populations of the villages at various ages.  Men who are away on extended working trips are not included, although those who go away on short seasonal migrations of only a few months are shown.

TABLE II

AGE AND SEX OF ADULT POPULATION

 

August Town

PERSEVERANCE

BETTER HOPE

AGE GROUP

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

21–30 years

62

124

40

50

24

27

31–40

68

93

39

42

12

25

41–50

79

72

30

18

18

17

51–60

53

60

18

13

13

15

61–70

38

48

11

15

8

9

71–80

12

29

5

7

6

5

81–90

2

12

1

0

0

5

N.B.—These figures are based on 100 per cent censuses in the case of August Town and Perseverance and a sample of eighty-four households in the case of Better Hope.  The discrepancy between the figures in this table and those in Table V is due to the fact that certain cases of households whose inhabitants were either non-Negro or marginal to the village community have been excluded from Table V.

   

It is clear that the preponderance of females over males in the lower age groups is highly significant, and August Town with so many young men at the Bauxite mines shows the greatest disparity.


[1] See Nadel 1951 for a discussion of field-work techniques.  Also Evans-Pritchard 1951: 64-85.

[2] See Fortes 1949b: 54 and 1953: 32-3, 35 for a discussion of this point.

[3] The present-day burial societies are amongst the most vigorous and long lived village organizations.  They provide members with the financial means for a proper funeral and ‘wake’, and many of them provide sickness benefits as well.

[4] The pickled cheeks of cow or pig.

[5] In a footnote Pinckard states that sugar began to replace cotton on many estates shortly after the time of writing.

[6] See Chapter VIII.  It was impossible to check whether previous inter-marriages had taken place between the two sections since the church registers had been destroyed by fire a short time before I arrived in the village.

[7] Obeah is a generalized term for witchcraft, black magic and sometimes white magic.  See Beckwith 1929, Williams, J.J. 1953: 108–41 and Trevor 1950: 87–115, 467.

[8] The names of the original proprietors of Belle Vue section appear on a plan drawn up in 1863 by A.F. Baird, sworn Land Surveyor, and have been compared with the names appearing in the agreement reproduced above.  The original copy of this plan is held in the Lands and Mines Department, Georgetown, British Guiana.

[9] Balata is collected from the wild Bullet tree (Minusops balata of the order Sapotoceae).  It is used in the manufacture of gutta percha.

[10] This rather casual method of cultivating rice is in sharp contrast to the painstaking care which most East Indians lavish upon their rice crops.  Certainly the Negro farmers could get higher yields if they devoted more time and attention to the crop, but they argue that they can be earning money elsewhere, and it does not pay them to stay in the village. They also assert that Negro women and children will not spend long periods of time in a flooded padi-field transplanting seedlings. The whole pattern of activities in the Negro villages is much more oriented towards the acquisition of cash wages, and the idea of a whole family turning out to work a rice farm under the direction of a male head is quite alien. This fact, rather than climatic factors or ‘racial character’, must be regarded as being of the greatest importance in moulding the attitudes towards methods of cultivation.

[11] I was told by one informant that a certain clergyman resident on the West Coast of Berbice acted as a recruiting agent for the bauxite companies at one time, and that it was he who persuaded the first men from August Town to go and take jobs at Kwakwani.

[12] Out of his earnings at Kwakwani or McKenzie a man may send as much as five or six dollars per week back to relatives in the village, particularly to his mother and to the mother of his children.  In addition to this he will probably accumulate savings in order to buy land or build a house in the village, or to help his mother with the building of a house, payment of rates, etc..

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